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The Danish drinking water supply is entirely based on groundwater. The government’s official position is that drinking water should be based on good quality groundwater, which only needs simple treatment (e.g. aeration and filtration) before it is distributed to the consumers.

Tunø is a small island of 3.52 square kilometer in Aarhus Bay in the Kattegat Sea in the central part of Denmark. Agriculture is the mainstays of the island’s economy, and the main crops are vegetables with a high level of nitrate leaching. In addition, during the summer months, there is a considerable influx of tourist to the summer cottages and the marina.

The Tunø case is a successful example of groundwater protection on a small island with one small waterworks where the aquifer is vulnerable to nitrate pollution and salt-water intrusion. The case will be used as a “lesson learned” and the following objectives has been identified with Tunø.

  • How to achieve farmer commitment to solve drinking water problems?
  • How to sustain a long-term project under changing administrative structures (long-term project management > 20 years)?
  • How to get measures accepted by farmers (including time to accept)?
  • How is farming practice affecting nitrate in groundwater?
  • Is the current groundwater protection strategy the most cost-effective?

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How protection zones and land management restored nitrate contaminated groundwater on the Island of Tunø

Tunø is an example of successful groundwater protection on a small island with one small waterworks where the aquifer is vulnerable to nitrate pollution and salt-water intrusion. The case provides valuable lessons learned.

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Working hypotheses for the Danish case studies

Five working hypotheses have been developed to assist the various groups of stakeholders achieve a common goal.

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Danish farmers' recommendations

Based on practical experience, three Danish farmers from the FAIRWAY case study of Aalborg make recommendations which they believe can ease groundwater protection processes when nitrate and /or pesticide restrictions are discussed for agricultural land.


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The Danish drinking water supply is entirely based on groundwater. The government’s official position is that drinking water should be of sufficient quality that it only needs simple treatment (e.g. aeration and filtration) before it is distributed to the consumers.

The main land use in the Aalborg area is intensive dairy farming, pig and crop production. It is one of the most vulnerable areas in Denmark in regard to nitrate leaching and pollution of groundwater. A monitoring program has been established and many observations and quantitative data are available for a long period. The data shows that the water contains variable amounts of nitrate and traces of some pesticides.

The following premises guide the work in the case study.

  • Common understanding of each other's frameworks and goals as well as better dialogue can increase the possibility of combining groundwater protection and agricultural production.
  • Proven and recognized agricultural practices and technology development can improve groundwater quality.
  • "Participating monitoring" can give farmers better commitment to groundwater protection.
  • Barriers to groundwater protection have been identified.
  • Cost-effective solutions for both farmers and waterworks are identified.

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Aalborg, DK

In the Aalborg case study in northern Denmark the land use is dominated by intensive dairy farming, pigs and crop production. Research is monitoring changes in groundwater quality associated with nitrate and pesticide use mitigation measures. However the chalk lithology makes this a complex picture of fast and slow pathways. Farmers and the water authority have to collaborate to ensure a clean drinking water supply. (In English and Danish, with English subtitles)

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How protection zones and different mitigation measures restore contaminated groundwater in the Kongshøj area in Aalborg

Since 2004 mitigation measures have included general regulations, set-aside or reduced use of N fertilization, afforestation, campaign on correct use of herbicides.

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Working hypotheses for the Danish case studies

Five working hypotheses have been developed to assist the various groups of stakeholders achieve a common goal.

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Danish farmers' recommendations

Based on practical experience, three Danish farmers from the FAIRWAY case study of Aalborg make recommendations which they believe can ease groundwater protection processes when nitrate and /or pesticide restrictions are discussed for agricultural land.


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Compliance with drinking water quality standards in the UK is the responsibility of privatised water companies monitored by the Drinking Water Inspectorate. Anglian Water is geographically the largest of 10 water supply and treatment companies in England and Wales. With almost 260 individual catchments, supply is split equally between ground and surface water with 9 reservoirs. The area includes the area of fastest population growth (predicted 34% growth in households by 2031).

Land use is predominantly arable with a wide range of soil types. With high quality farmland, the area is one of the most important and productive in the UK.

The predominant water quality issues relate to high nitrate concentrations, particularly in ground waters, and pesticide contamination of surface waters (with metaldehyde being particularly problematic due to the lack of water treatment options).

Anglian Water has funded a number of Catchment Officers who are responsible for reducing the amount of pesticides reaching water treatment works. Since 2015 the Catchment Officers have adopted a range of approaches to engage with farmers to achieve this, with a particular focus on minimising the use of metaldehyde.

This case study focuses on

  • studying the social science lessons behind two approaches to reducing on-farm pesticide use,
  • collecting comparable data in a third control area with metaldehyde challenges,
  • then testing a third approach of ‘new network engagement’.

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Using different methods of farmer engagement to reduce the use of pesticides.

In the predominantly arable Anglian Region (England) the drinking water company has funded a number of Catchment Officers responsible for reducing the amount of pesticides, particularly metaldehyde, reaching water treatment works. This case study focuses on: the social science lessons behind two approaches to reducing on-farm pesticide use; collecting comparable data in a third control area with metaldehyde challenges; testing a third ‘new network engagement’ approach.

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The Anglian Region MAP

Multi-actor platforms (MAPs) offer a platform where stakeholders can learn together in an active way, where people can speak and be heard, and where everybody's ideas can be harnessed to drive innovation and find ways forward that are more likely to be in the interest of all.


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The Voulzie basin is 70 km south-east of Paris. The aquifer is the main groundwater resource in Ile-de-France and a very important drinking water source for Paris. Eau de Paris is a public organisation in charge of managing water resources for Paris.

As the aquifer is located in an area of intensive agriculture, one the main challenges for Eau de Paris is the protection of water resources while also meeting the local needs of territories. Eau de Paris is particularly active in promoting agri-environment measures to reduce nitrate and pesticide use. Eau de Paris promotes agricultural practice changes using agri-environment measures organised together with local farmers. It closely follows their application and their impact on water quality in order to identify agronomic actions or land use that have a limited impact. The good cooperation between stakeholders in La Voulzie basin is illustrated by:

  • The agri-environmental measures taken - these have slightly changed over time but include: conservation of biodiversity, fertilization and pesticide reduction.
  • Farmer involvement - in addition to the agri-environmental measures for which the farmers receive monetary compensation, farmers also develop individual and voluntary initiatives (e.g agroforestery managed plots).
  • Intense pesticide and fertilizer monitoring.

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The case study area covers two provinces in the German federal state of Lower Saxony.

  • The northwestern province of Lower Saxony Süd-Oldenburg (districts Cloppenburg, Vechta and Oldenburg) is characterized by very intensive pig and poultry farming, biogas plants and very high farmland (leasing) prices. Consequently, area-based surplus of farm manure is high. Since, in the northwestern region, sandy soils with small water retention capacity dominate, nutrient leaching to the groundwater bodies is potentially high as well.
  • In contrast, the southeastern province of Lower Saxony (e.g. the provinces Braunschweig and Northeim, the so-calles "wheat belt") is  specialized in crop production. Soil conditions are diverse (sandy to clayey). Some farms make use of biogas residues, sewage sludge and compost; however, the area-based amount of organic fertilizers applied is generally at a low level.

In Germany, local water supply companies safeguard drinking water quality, consequently they have very high interest in meeting the legal regulations set by the German Ordinance on Potable Water (TrinkwV 2016). In the past, many attempts have been made to shape agricultural management in a way that drinking water resources are less affected.

In this context, the federal chamber of agriculture (Landwirtschaftskammer Niedersachsen), which is the public advisory authority for agricultural purposes, has initiated a program that aims at closing nutrient cycles on supra-regional scale. The joint project "Farm Manure Management" (»Verbundprojekt Wirtschaftsdüngermanagement) examines the (potential) export of farm manure from surplus regions to arable farming regions.

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Lower Saxony, DE

The Joint Project Farm Manure Management is investigating how much of the farm manure accumulating in the west of Lower Saxony (where husbandry dominates) can be transported to the southeast (a mainly arable area) in an environmentally-sound way, to substitue mineral fertilizers and close the nutrient cycle on a supraregional scale.
»Video also available in German

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Lower Saxony, DE

Around 250 farmers in the south east of Lower Saxony were questioned about the use they make of organic manure. Because of variability in the quality of manure, most farmers prefer long-term cooperation with farmers they know in person and whom they can trust.
»Video also available in German

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Closing nutrient cycles by manure transport: analysis of potential and reported experience

In Lower Saxony the public advisory authority for agriculture has initiated a program that aims at closing nutrient cycles on supra-regional scale. "Farm Manure Management" examines the (potential) export of farm manure from regions with intensive pig and poultry farming to arable farming regions.


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The Axios river basin is located in Central North Greece. It is a transboundary river, originating in the Balkan peninsula and flowing into Greece to form a delta, next to the city of Thessaloniki. The estuary is protected by “Natura” network, for its diversity of flaura and fauna as a breeding ground for migrating birds.

Most of the water supply comes from groundwater, the rest from the rivers Gallikos and Loudias and is used for irrigation (72%) and drinking water (22%). Groundwater has been proven to be contaminated by heavy metals (Mn, Ni, As, Cr ), F, B, NO3 and phosphates derived from fertilizers, uncontrolled waste disposal sites and municipal wastewater, sheep housing, farms, poultry farms, slaughterhouses, mills and food production units. Also a wide range of pesticides have been detected in various concentrations due to the extensive agricultural activities.

Under the auspices of FAIRWAY, in this case study we aim to achieve:

  • 50 mg NO3/l in the upper phreatic groundwater below agricultural areas,
  • 0.1 µg/l pesticides in the upper phreatic groundwater below agricultural area.

This will be done by:

  1. monitoring, registering and statistically analysing pressures and pollution indicators. Monitoring farmers' practices according to specific cultivation activities. Quantifying applied fertilisers and pesticide use. Taking into consideration livestock production and source identification of pesticides. Designing and implementing activities related to maximization of best agricultural practices.
  2. Creating a toolbox for 3 cases:
    (a) safe waters and remaining this situation through educational programs and relation to other on-going projects in the area,
    (b) warning of pollution presence and activities to reverse the problem,
    (c) pollution occurrence red alert and immediate actions to overcome.
  3. Harmonising datasets and validating results with best laboratory practices. Adopting methods of analysis, pollution concentrations and best pollution indicators in all cases.

 


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The Derg catchment is located in the north west of Ireland, spanning the border between Northern Ireland (NI) and the Republic of Ireland (RoI). In the upper part of the catchment land use is predominantly coniferous plantation and bogland with low intensity farming on poor pasture land. In the lower part intensification of land use for agricultural purposes is more prevalent with improved grasslands and complex cultivation patterns.

Groundwater productivity is relatively low and only for limited individual use. Raw drinking water for a population of 1.8 million is abstracted from surface water of the River Derg.

NIWater and Northern Ireland Environmental Agency (NIEA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) implement a comprehensive monitoring program of water quality in the catchment. There are  two main threats to raw drinking water in the catchment.

  • MCPA (herbicide) arising from the spraying of rushes (Juncus) on agricultural land. The need to remove rushes from agricultural land is being driven by farmers’ concerns over eligible land for the EU single farm payment. Increase in rush cover is being attributed to prolonged saturation of soil, lower stocking rates and lowered soil pH.
  • Colour/turbidity arising from peaty soils and eroded sediment from both forestry and agricultural land. Chlorination reactions with dissolved organic carbon (DOC) during the drinking water treatment process results in the production of toxic trihalomethanes.

From March 2017, the Agri-Food and Bioscience Institute (AFBI) has been working on a €4.6 million INTERREG VA funded »Source to Tap project aimed at reducing the impact of land use on drinking water in the Derg and Erne Catchment. Source to Tap aims to deliver:

  • a Catchment Management Plan;
  • a Learning and Outreach Plan in the Derg Catchments through Source to Tap Project Catchment Officers to effect changes in attitude to protection of water quality and the water environment;
  • a cross border farm Incentive Scheme in selected sub-catchments within the Derg catchment, encouraging changes in current land management practices to reduce pesticide, colour, turbidity and diffuse pollution pressures, thereby improving overall water quality;
  • UK Water Industry Research (UKWIR) cost benefits assessments of the Farm Incentive Scheme.

 


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In the province of Overijssel, Netherlands, groundwater is the only source of drinking water. The province is responsible its protection and management. Land use consists of agricultural land (mainly dairy farming with 80% grass and 20% maize), natural and some urban areas. The sources of contamination are from nitrate and pesticide leaching through the shallow sandy soil into the groundwater.

Since 2011, the province of Overijssel and the Vitens drinking water company, together with Wageningen University, Countus, Stimuland and Royal HaskoningDHV have given support to dairy farmers to improve their mineral management in the recharge areas of five vulnerable drinking water abstractions through the project Farmers for Drinking Water (»Boeren voor Drinkwater).

Objectives are to achieve:

  • 50 mg NO3/l in the upper phreatic groundwater below agricultural area;
  • 0.1 µg/l pesticides in the upper phreatic groundwater below agricultural area.

Targets for agricultural management are:

  • N-soil surplus of at most 100 kg N/ha calculated by the Annual Nutrient Cycle Assessment (ANCA);
  • a maximum 100 Environmental Impact Points (EIP) of individual pesticides and max 500 EIP for the total of all pesticides used.

 


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The Noord-Brabant case study is located in the south of the Netherlands. Drinking water is produced from groundwater, abstracted from 39 locations to supply 2.5 million people, and from the river Meuse to supply 3 million. Abstraction sites vary in depth and vulnerability. The shallow and most vulnerable sites are surrounded by groundwater protection areas. Land use is a mixture of agriculture, nature and urban area. Agricultural crops include grass, maize, potatoes, sugar beets, trees and vegetables. 

The monitoring program carried out by »Brabant Water and the provincial authorities (of tap water, raw water and ground/surface water), shows that the use of pesticides is a threat to groundwater in 11 of the abstraction areas. Pesticides are used in agriculture, but also in urban areas. The strategy to produce high quality tap water revolves around prevention and (if necessary) water purification.

Guidance and support has been provided for farmers (for a number of years) to mitigate leaching of pesticides. Over 300 farmers and contractors are participating who, between them, are responsible for more than 85% of the total agricultural land in the groundwater protection areas. Municipalities and civilians also are supported to reduce their use of pesticides.

A simple contract between farmers and the province is put in place including an agreement on reduced use of pesticides. The farmers take measures and (try to) implement innovations and new techniques, they choose pesticides with low environmental impact using the »Environmental Yardstick for Pesticides, and register their pesticide use. The municipalities have reduced their pesticide use to zero on hard surfaces and they aim for zero use in parks, sport pitches and golf areas.

Three key factors are used to stimulate the participation of all famers in this approach.

  • Uptake of new techniques: Almost every farmer is interested in techniques. demonstrating new techiques and supporting farmers in buying new techniques is a key factor.
  • Cooperation with the advisers who sell pesticides and minerals to the farmers: when the advice of these intermediates is in line with the goals of the drinking water company, a large group of farmers can be reached.
  • Cooperation with the farmers, contractors and supermarkets. When the demand of the supermarket is in line with the goals of the drinking water company, a large group of farmers can be reached.

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Brabant, NL

An asparagus farmer in Brabant (Netherlands) tells his personal story about how he tries to reduce pollution risk while keeping his farm economically sustainable.

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Collective actions to improve water quality

In Noord-Brabant the use of pesticides is a threat to ground water in some of the drinking water abstraction areas. A simple contract has been made between farmers and the province including an agreement on reduced use of pesticides. The farmers take measures and (try to) implement innovations and new techniques, they choose pesticides with low environmental impact and register their pesticide use. The municipalities have reduced their pesticide use to zero on hard surfaces and they aim for zero use in parks, sport pitches and golf areas.

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Cleaning out the pesticide store

As part of the Clean Water project, farmers are supported to get rid of outdated and leftover pesticides without obligation. It prevents unnecessary use or discharge of these chemicals. This approach is very successful and is now used in projects throughout the Netherlands.


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Vansjø-Hobøl is a complex lake-river system in south-eastern Norway. Lake Vansjø is used as a drinking water source, with a raw water intake in the Eastern basin. The main land uses are forest (79%) and agriculture (17%).

The quality of the raw water varies constantly, mainly due to natural seasonal variations in weather and temperature and associated variable loads of nutrients and other pollutants. The nitrogen concentration is characterized by strong variations from year to year, but the long-term average does not show an increase or decrease.

There is currently no acute drinking water quality concern regarding Vansjø. The focus of the case study is related to the long-term nutrient loads and the occurrence of blue-green algae development in the lake, together with browning of drinking water. These vary as a consequence of climate change, land use change (in particular within the agricultural sector) and also partially as a consequence of the regulation of the water level in Vansjø.

The aim of the case study is to elucidate for the various stakeholder the possible effects on (drinking) water quality under modelled scenarios in which

  • climate change,
  • agricultural land use and
  • the water regulation scheme

are changed. The perception of uncertainties with respect to the modelled outputs will also be considered.


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Vansjø, NO

Cross-municipal and sectoral cooperation has enabled the implementation of measures to improve water quality.

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Vansjø, NO

Freshwater management and challenges - results from the FAIRWAY and WATExR projects.

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Multi-actor processes and collective action for improving water quality

Vansjø is a complex lake-river system with varying long-term nutrient loads. The aim is to elucidate for the various stakeholders the possible effects on drinking water quality of modelled scenarios in which climate change, agricultural land use and the water regulation scheme are changed.


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The Portuguese case study consists of two contiguous river basins, the Lower Mondego and the Lower Vouga valleys. Groundwater for public drinking is extracted from aquifers upslope of the more intensive agriculture and husbandry on the plains. However, many farmers in the rural areas of Lower Mondego have wells that they use both for irrigation and drinking water.

The main contamination problems occur in the dry summer season and are caused by excess nutrients being added to the soil in the form of ammoniac nitrogen and nitrates. Manure and wastewater sludge are increasingly being added to the soil as fertilizers. This is compounded by the impact of poor intensive husbandry management that contaminates both aquifers and superficial water bodies. Consequently 42% of the aquifers have nitrate concentrations above the national average. Some surface water bodies also seasonally exceed the limits for several drinking water pollutants.

The soils this area are also being used as a medium to dispose of organic waste within a circular economy strategy that aims to close energy and matter loops at the local scale. However, this is not done without risk, and the addition of residues to the soil has to be controlled in order to keep under the legal pollutant concentration limits for both ground and surface water, all year round and particularly during the summer dry period.

Objectives are to:

  • limit the concentration of nitrate to 50 mg NO3/l in superficial water bodies and groundwater in the agricultural area;
  • limit the concentration of each individual pesticide to 0.1 µg/l and of total amount of pesticides to 0.5 µg/l in superficial water bodies and groundwater in agricultural areas;
  • establish a participatory governance framework to discuss strategies and practices and implement best solutions in a swift way, involving all stakeholders in a common plan of action.

Targets for agricultural management are to assess:

  • the impact of cropping systems and establishment of application thresholds for the soils in the two study areas;
  • to what extent alternative cropping systems and crop management techniques (organic farming, integrated pest control) can improve or worsen nitrogen and pesticide pollutant concentrations and control.

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How a nutrient management tool can help improve water quality

In Baixo Mondego the soils are being used as a medium to dispose of organic waste within a circular economy strategy that aims to close energy and matter loops at the local scale. However, this is not done without risk, and the addition of residues to the soil has to be controlled in order to keep under the legal pollutant concentration limits for both ground and surface water, all year round and particularly during the summer dry period.


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The Arges-Vedea case study area is is in south Romania, between the Carpathian mountains and the Danube river and covers three counties (Arges, Giurgiu and Teleorman). Because of its relief, land use pattern in Arges county is complex and includes arable, pastures and hayfields, orchards and vineyards. Arable land is dominant in Giurgiu and Teleorman counties.

High nitrate content in groundwater affects the area. About 75% of drinking water is taken from private wells located on household sites. Most of the households have animals (up to 3 Animal Units) and very rudimentary manure storage facilities so the main pollution sources for nitrates is animal waste. Most of the animals in small individual farms are inside the village area and therefore, the source of groundwater pollution is inside the built up area villages. In the rest of the municipalities there is a public drinking water supply (mainly from surface waters), the quality of which is within the limits specified by drinking water regulations. The problem here is that many households have no access to a public sewage system.

The national network developed by the Romanian Waters Administration was used for evaluating nitrate concentration in the groundwater in the case study. Field campaigns measuring nitrate concentration in public and individual wells in hill region of the Arges county were added to the national network. The data shows that the pollution of groundwater with nitrates is more a site-specific problem than a diffuse one (points with high nitrate concentration adjacent to points with low concentration, no correlation with animal concentration).

A World Bank project related to “Integrated Control of Fertilizer Use” is being implemented in Arges-Vedea catchment. Its main objectives are the development of measures to mitigate the nitrate flow to surface and groundwater by:

  • the development and implementation of the Code for Good Agricultural Practices;
  • building collective and individual manure storage facilities;
  • making fertilization plans at farm level according to the local pedoclimatic conditions, crop need and on-going legislation;
  • awareness-raising training for farmers and local communities to prevent water pollution by nitrates from agricultural sources.

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When best agricultural practices are applied there is less nitrogen pollution in water bodies

The area of Arges-Vedea (Romania) is affected by high nitrate concentration in the groundwater. About 75% of drinking water is taken from private wells located on household sites. Most of the households have animals and very rudimentary manure storage facilities so the main pollution sources for nitrates is animal waste. A World Bank project related to “Integrated Control of Fertilizer Use” is being implemented with the objectives of developing measures to mitigate the nitrate flow to surface and groundwater.

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Optimized nitrogen management plans for human health and welfare using a fertilization plan

The fertilization plan is accomplished for a period of 4-5 years for crops within acertain rotation at farm level and contains economic optimum doses (for amaximum economic benefit) and technical doses (for maintaining soil fertility).The fertilization plan is carried out going through three stages: the field stage,laboratory stage and desk stage.


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Dravsko Polje is an alluvial plain of the river Drava, in north-eastern Slovenia. The area is administratively divided among twelve municipalities, each one with their individual rights and responsibilities in managing land use policy and wastewater. In addition to state regulation, municipalities have the right to enforce decrees on water protection zones for small water resources of local importance.

The aquifer supplies all the drinking water in the area, through six drinking water systems.

The area is suitable for intensive arable and livestock production due to the favourable climate, flat relief, structure of agricultural holdings and the size of land parcels. However the soils are very susceptible to nutrient and pesticide losses and leaching into the groundwater.

Regular state monitoring is implemented by Slovenian Environmental Agency (ARSO) and by drinking water supply companies in Ptuj and Maribor. The shallow aquifer is contaminated by nitrates and pesticides, mainly from livestock farms and intensive arable land management. Measurements at wells show that nine out of twelve do not fulfil quality standards on nitrate for clean drinking water, while six extraction points do not fulfil quality standards for pesticides (atrazine, desetil-atrazine, metholachlor). The deep aquifer is practically free of nitrates and pesticides but the recharge rate and area are unknown. Water companies mix water from shallow and deep wells to reach acceptable quality of tap water.

Several research and monitoring projects have been carried out in Slovenia concerning groundwater quality and quantity. FAIRWAY opens new areas of research dealing with social aspects of organising multi actor platforms (e.g. water partnerships) as proposed by WFD, where stakeholders associated with the water body can equally discuss environmental and agricultural measures focused on water quality and adopt common decisions that are binding for all parties. We would like to analyse and learn from other case studies how to improve communication between land managers (farmers), water companies and government.


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Dravsko Polje, SI

A dairy farmer in Dravsko Polje (Slovenia) tells how she has replaced the old cattle shed with a new one using a deep bedding system. The bedding material mixed with slurry is applied to the fields, providing much needed additional organic matter and a reduced risk of leaching.

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Possibilities for effective cooperation between stakeholders to improve drinking water

FAIRWAY opens new areas of research into the organisation of multi-actor platforms and contributing to the formalisation of current occasional meetings between farmers and government.

 


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